NCERT Solutions for Class 7 Social Science Chapter 4: New Beginnings – Cities and States

1. What is meant by ‘Second Urbanisation of India’?

Ans: ‘Second Urbanisation of India’ refers to the emergence of new cities and the growth of urban life in the Ganga plains and nearby regions during the 1st millennium BCE, after the decline of the Harappan (First Urbanisation) civilisation. This period saw flourishing towns, trade, and the development of early states.

2. Why were the janapadas and mahājanapadas an important development in India’s early history?

Ans: The janapadas and mahājanapadas marked the rise of organised states in ancient India. The formation of these territorial units led to political stability, economic growth, the spread of trade, and the establishment of new administrative systems that contributed to the rich history and culture of the subcontinent.

3. What kind of system of governance did they evolve?

Ans: Janapadas and mahājanapadas evolved both monarchical and republican systems. In monarchies, the rājā (king) was supported by ministers and elders, ruling often by hereditary succession. In some states, like Vajji and Malla, republican systems existed, where decisions were made by assemblies or councils, making them early republics of the ancient world.

Questions and activities:

1. Consider the quotation given below and discuss in several groups. Compare your observations and conclusions on what Kautilya recommends for a kingdom. Is it very different today?

The kingdom shall be protected by fortifying the capital and the towns at the frontiers. The land should not only be capable of sustaining the population but also outsiders in times of calamities. …… It should be beautiful, being endowed with cultivable land, mines, timber forests, elephant forests, and good pastures rich in cattle. It should not depend [only on] rain for water. It should have good roads and waterways. It should have a productive economy, with a wide variety of commodities….
— Kautilya, Arthashastra

Ans: Kautilya’s ideas in the Arthashastra reflect remarkable foresight and remain highly relevant even in the modern era. His recommendations reveal a well-rounded vision of governance, emphasizing security, sustainability, and prosperity—principles that still form the foundation of strong nations today.

Let’s relate his suggestions to modern times:

(i) Fortifying the capital and frontier towns:

Then: Kingdoms focused on physical defense through strong forts and strategic planning.
Now: The idea continues through modern defense systems, border control, and cybersecurity. Protection and stability remain the government’s top priority.

(ii) Land sustaining people and outsiders during calamities:

Then: Emphasis on being prepared for crises like famine or invasion.
Now: The same principle appears in disaster management systems, food reserves, and relief measures. Ensuring resilience is still central to national security.

(iii) Natural resources and environmental wealth:

Then: The kingdom’s power lay in fertile lands, forests, mines, and pastures.
Now: We focus on sustainable agriculture, renewable energy, and environmental protection—reflecting Kautilya’s wisdom of self-reliance and resource conservation.

(iv) Good roads and waterways:

Then: Infrastructure was vital for communication and trade.
Now: Roads, railways, ports, and digital networks continue to drive progress and connectivity. The concept remains unchanged, only the tools have evolved.

(v) A productive and diverse economy:

Then: Stability came from economic variety.
Now: Nations build resilience by developing multiple sectors like agriculture, industry, and technology. Economic diversification is still key to growth.

In essence, Kautilya’s principles are timeless. The methods have changed, but the vision—balancing economy, environment, defense, and welfare—remains the ideal for sustainable governance.

2. According to the text, how were rulers chosen in early Vedic society?

Ans: In early Vedic society, kingship was not always hereditary. Leaders, known as rajas, were often selected based on merit, bravery, and wisdom rather than birth. The sabha and samiti-two early tribal assemblies-played an active role in this selection, reflecting a participatory form of governance. The raja was expected to protect the tribe and uphold dharma (righteous duty). Although priests (Brahmins) performed rituals to legitimize his rule, the choice of leader largely rested with the community. Thus, leadership in the early Vedic era was more democratic and ability-based, later evolving into hereditary monarchy in the later Vedic period.

3. Imagine you are a historian studying ancient India. What types of sources (archaeological, literary, etc.) would you use to learn more about the mahajanapadas? Explain how each source might contribute to your understanding.

Answer:
To study the Mahajanapadas of ancient India, a historian would need to consult various types of evidence—literary, archaeological, numismatic, and epigraphic—each providing unique insights.

(i) Literary Sources:
Ancient texts such as the Mahabharata, Puranas, Buddhist and Jain literature mention the Mahajanapadas. These writings shed light on their political systems, rulers, wars, and cultural values.

(ii) Archaeological Sources:
Excavations at sites like Rajgir, Ujjain, and Taxila reveal urban structures, fortifications, tools, pottery, and ornaments. These remains help us understand urban planning, craftsmanship, and the everyday life of the people.

(iii) Numismatic Sources (Coins):
Punch-marked coins from the period bear symbols and motifs linked to specific states. They offer information about trade, economy, and political authority, indicating the prosperity and governance style of different Mahajanapadas.

By combining these sources, historians can create a comprehensive picture of how these early states developed, interacted, and contributed to India’s ancient civilization.

4. Why was the development of iron metallurgy so important for the growth of urbanism in the 1st millennium BCE? You may use points from the chapter but also from your knowledge or imagination.

Answer:
The discovery and use of iron in the 1st millennium BCE transformed early Indian society, fueling the rise of towns and cities. It became a foundation for economic and social change.

(i) Improved Tools and Agriculture:
Iron ploughs, axes, and sickles made farming and clearing land much easier. This led to greater agricultural productivity, which could sustain larger populations—an essential condition for urban growth.

(ii) Growth of Crafts and Trade:
Iron tools encouraged specialized occupations such as blacksmithing, construction, and carpentry. As surplus food supported artisans and traders, urban centers emerged where goods and skills could be exchanged.

(iii) Expansion of Trade Networks:
Iron was also used for transport tools and weapons, boosting commerce and ensuring safety. With better mobility and connectivity, trade routes expanded, and towns developed along these routes as commercial hubs.

Thus, iron metallurgy was not just a technological leap—it was the driving force behind agricultural surplus, economic diversification, and the birth of early cities in India.

Key Concepts of New Beginnings: Cities and States

The chapter explores India’s Second Urbanisation, highlighting new cities, mahājanapadas, and evolving systems of governance. By understanding these topics, students build a strong foundation in Social Science for the academic year 2025-26.

Practice of NCERT exercise solutions ensures conceptual clarity in topics like janapadas, governance, and urban growth. Regular revision helps students confidently answer exam questions and apply historical insights to new scenarios.

Strengthen your preparation by focusing on chapter-wise solutions. Stay consistent, analyze key themes, and make your Social Science study plan effective for scoring high in exams.