New Beginnings: Cities and States Class 7 Social Science Chapter 4 CBSE Notes 2025-26

After the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization, India entered a long period where urban life disappeared, and rural or village lifestyles became dominant. 

This lasted for almost a thousand years until, in the first millennium BCE, a fresh wave of urbanization started in the Ganga plains and neighboring regions. 

This phase is called the ‘Second Urbanisation of India’. Evidence for this comes from both archaeological findings and ancient texts like the late Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain literature.

Emergence of Janapadas and Mahājanapadas

Small groups called clans, united by common identity and leadership, began to settle in specific territories, forming early states known as janapadas (‘where the people have settled down’). These states often grew through trade and alliances.

By the 8th or 7th centuries BCE, some janapadas combined to form larger and more powerful states called mahajanapadas. Historical sources most frequently mention sixteen mahājanapadas, which ranged from Gandhara in the northwest to Anga in the east, and Aśhmaka near the Godavari in central India.

Most of these mahājanapadas were located in the fertile Ganga plains because this area was ideal for agriculture, had access to natural resources like iron, and allowed the growth of trade networks. 

The capitals of these large states were usually fortified and featured well-planned city layouts, with moats and narrow gateways for protection and control.

Systems of Governance and Early Democracy

Every janapada had a council or sabha (also called samiti) that advised the ruler (raja) and could even replace him if necessary. In the mahajanapadas, this evolved further. 

Most were hereditary monarchies – the role of king usually passed from father to son. However, some states like Vajji and Malla followed a different path. Their assemblies were so powerful that rulers were selected through discussion and votes, earning these states the label of ‘early republics’ or ‘democratic’ systems in ancient history.

The king’s main tasks included maintaining law and order, collecting revenues, building fortifications, and leading armies. The most powerful mahajanapadas included Magadha (in Bihar), Kosala (in Uttar Pradesh), and Avanti (in Madhya Pradesh).

Technological and Economic Innovations

This period was marked by major changes in technology and economy. One of the most critical advancements was the widespread use of iron, making tools and weapons more effective. 

Iron tools dramatically boosted agricultural output, while iron weapons improved warfare methods. The period also saw the creation and use of the earliest coins in India, made from silver and other metals, which supported expanding trade between regions and even abroad.

Trade routes like the Uttarapatha (connecting northwest India with the east) and Dakshina Patha (from Kaushambi southwards) became important for travel, trade, and the spread of ideas. Major roads also linked to dynamic port cities along the eastern and western seas, fostering vibrant commerce.

Social Structure: Varna–Jati System

With rising city life and complex social needs, society became organized into two main structures. First was the jati – occupational groups whose skills and traditions passed through generations. Second was the varṇa system, originating from Vedic literature, which divided people into four broad classes:

• Brahmins – in charge of knowledge and ritual practices
• Kshatriyas – responsible for protection and warfare
• Vaishyas – focused on trade, business, and agriculture
• Shudras – craftspeople, artisans, and service providers

Over time, jati groups could further split, creating sub-jatis with their own customs. Although originally more flexible, the varṇa–jati system eventually grew rigid, resulting in social inequalities and even discrimination, particularly towards those outside or at the bottom of the system.

The term ‘caste’ is rooted in the Portuguese word ‘casta’, and although some use it for varṇa or jāti, others see it as referring to the entire varṇa–jāti framework.

Urban Growth Beyond North India

The growth of trade and city life was not limited to the north. In the south, between 400 BCE and later, commercial activities blossomed, and cities emerged due to active trade in spices, precious stones, and gold. 

The Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas became influential kingdoms in the Tamil region. Ancient Tamil literature also gives insights into southern society and its rulers.

In eastern India, cities like Shishupalgarh (now part of Bhubaneswar) became leading urban centers with highly organized layouts and fortifications. Archaeological finds at sites like Kodumanal (near Erode, Tamil Nadu) show extensive industries in shell and gemstone working.

By 300 or 200 BCE, the entire Indian subcontinent – north, south, east, west, and even the northeast – was interconnected by routes and exchanges of goods, cultures, and ideas. The mahājanapadas period ended as even larger kingdoms and empires arose.

Main Highlights for Quick Revision

• The disintegration of the Indus Valley Civilization led to a thousand-year break in urban life.
• The ‘Second Urbanisation’ in the first millennium BCE was marked by the rise of janapadas and later mahājanapadas.
• Sixteen major mahājanapadas formed the core states, with fortified cities as capitals.
• Early democracy existed in some mahājanapadas, while others had hereditary monarchies.
• Technological leaps included iron usage for tools and weapons, and the introduction of coinage for trade.
• Society was organized in the varṇa–jāti system, shaping social and professional life.
• Broad trade networks promoted the spread of goods and cultural exchange across the subcontinent.

Key Takeaways

• From the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, smaller janapadas emerged in north and central India, ruled by a rājā and elders.
• Sixteen mahājanapadas were the first large states of this period. The Second Urbanisation began and expanded from the Ganga to southern India.
• By around 300 BCE, these gave way to bigger empires, but the trade and cultural networks continued to unite the subcontinent.

Reviewing these points will help you quickly grasp the major developments from the rise of cities and states in early historic India.

Class 7 Social Science Chapter 4 Notes – New Beginnings: Cities and States – Quick Revision Guide

These revision notes for CBSE Class 7 Social Science Chapter 4 – New Beginnings: Cities and States offer a clear summary of the shift from rural to urban society in ancient India. The notes cover key topics like janapadas, mahājanapadas, early democracies, trading routes, and the social structure. All main exam-relevant points are easy to spot and understand.

Use these concise notes to quickly revise details about Second Urbanisation, technological changes, and the evolution of administration and society. Designed for simple learning, they help you remember facts and concepts that are often asked in exams, making your last-minute revision fast and effective.