Colonialism and the Countryside Class 12 History Chapter 9 CBSE Notes - 2025-26

Colonialism brought major changes to the Indian countryside. The British implemented new land revenue systems, radically affecting rural society and agriculture. 

The impact of the Permanent Settlement in Bengal, the migration of the Santhals to the Rajmahal hills, and the rise of peasant resistance in the Deccan are key themes in this chapter.

British revenue policies, such as the Permanent Settlement of 1793, had long-lasting effects on landlords (zamindars), peasants, and rural power structures. Laws and land rights shaped patterns of wealth, poverty, and ownership, while leading to social and economic tensions.

The Permanent Settlement gave zamindars hereditary rights over land, making them responsible for collecting and remitting land revenue. Zamindars had to pay revenue regardless of the actual income from the land, leading to a rigid and often harsh revenue structure.

• Failure to pay revenue led to the auction of zamindaris. Many traditional zamindars lost their estates as they could not meet the high fixed demands.
• Auctions were common in areas like Burdwan, where many zamindaris changed hands in the early colonial period.
• Zamindars often faced difficulties collecting rent from peasants, especially during poor harvests or natural disasters.
• The British intended to create a class of loyal landlords and ensure a regular flow of revenue, but their policies weakened many old zamindar families.

Many zamindars tried to resist these threats by using legal loopholes, transferring their property to relatives to avoid auction, or delaying payments. 

Yet, a new group known as the jotedars—wealthy peasants, moneylenders, and traders—emerged powerful in the countryside by purchasing auctioned lands.

Jotedars gradually replaced some zamindars as new powerholders in rural Bengal due to their economic strength and ability to buy up land. They were often local men with a mix of agricultural and commercial interests.

• Jotedars gained control over land and became key intermediaries between peasants and the colonial government.
• Their rise contributed to a complex rural hierarchy where both zamindars and jotedars held significant power.
• Jotedars could exert pressure on poor peasants through lending and control of land leases.

Zamindars, meanwhile, often lost real control but tried to use their status and connections to regain influence. 

The British administration's reports, such as the Fifth Report, were important records on changing rural society and landholding patterns, but also reflected British officials' own perspectives and biases.

The Rajmahal hills saw the coexistence of various tribal groups, notably the Paharias and the Santhals. 

The Paharias were traditional inhabitants who practiced shifting cultivation and lived in small villages. With increasing settlement and forest clearance, the Santhals, a migrant community, began to move in from the late 18th century.

• The Paharias tried to resist British expansion and encroachment by settlers and moneylenders.
• Santhals cleared forests, took up settled agriculture, and gradually established villages, transforming the local landscape.
• This change led to conflicts over land and resources, with Santhals often clashing with both colonial authorities and local landlords.

The settlement and expansion of the Santhals reflected a broader pattern of tribes being pushed into marginal lands or adapting to settled agriculture under pressure. 

Colonial surveys like those by Francis Buchanan offer detailed descriptions of these changes but must be interpreted carefully.

By the mid-19th century, the Bombay Deccan experienced mounting rural distress. 

High revenue demands, declining crop prices, and limited access to credit increased peasant hardships. Ryots (peasants) fell into debt with moneylenders, often losing land and facing harsh legal measures in case of default.

• Peasant anger boiled over in the Deccan Riots of 1875, where ryots attacked moneylenders’ property and burned account books.
• The introduction of the Ryotwari system made each farmer directly responsible for land revenue, removing the buffer role of landlords.
• The global cotton boom during and after the American Civil War initially benefited peasants, but the downturn afterward created further debt traps.

Moneylenders used their control to seize land and charge high interest rates. When cotton prices dropped and credit sources dried up after the boom, peasants were left vulnerable, resulting in widespread discontent and resistance.

Authorities responded by setting up the Deccan Riots Commission to investigate the causes and suggest reforms. These riots highlighted the rural crisis and the deep resentments caused by colonial policies.

• 1765: English East India Company acquires Diwani of Bengal.
• 1793: Permanent Settlement introduced in Bengal.
• Early 1800s: Santhals move into the Rajmahal hills and settle.
• 1855-56: Santhal rebellion against colonial rule.
• 1861: Cotton boom begins in India due to the American Civil War.
• 1875: Deccan Riots erupt as ryots rise against moneylenders.

Historians use a variety of sources to reconstruct rural history, such as revenue records, British government reports, travelers' accounts, surveys (like those of Buchanan), and local oral traditions. Each source offers valuable information but may be biased or incomplete.

• Official sources often reflect colonial perspectives and administrative concerns.
• Local accounts and oral histories provide alternative views and highlight experiences of peasants and tribal groups.

Questions like how law shaped rural society, why different classes resisted, and how colonialism affected everyday lives are explored using these records. Historians must compare and critically analyze all available sources to build a broader picture.

• Sugata Bose, "Agrarian Bengal"
• Francis Buchanan, Survey of Bhagalpur
• Sumit Guha, "The Agrarian Economy of the Bombay Deccan, 1818-1941"
• Ramachandra Guha, "The Unquiet Woods"

These works provide extra insights into rural change, land systems, and peasant resistance, helping students deepen their understanding of this complex period in Indian history.

Class 12 History Chapter 9 Notes – Colonialism and the Countryside: Key Points for Quick Revision

These Class 12 History Chapter 9 notes on Colonialism and the Countryside present complex topics in simple language for quick and clear revision. You’ll understand the role of zamindars, jotedars, and changes in agrarian society under British rule. The points help you focus on exam-relevant details while saving you time.

With these easy-to-read CBSE revision notes, you can easily recall timelines, policies, and the effects of British colonialism on rural India. Use them to boost your confidence during tests, grasp cause-effect links, and score better in history exams.