Kings, Farmers and Towns Class 12 History Chapter 2 CBSE Notes-2025-26

After the decline of the Harappan civilisation, the Indian subcontinent saw significant social, political, and economic changes over about 1,500 years. 

During this time, agricultural communities grew in different regions, ranging from north India to the Deccan Plateau and south India. Settlements of both farmers and pastoralists were detected, along with unique burial practices involving megaliths and grave goods such as iron tools and weapons.

Prinsep and the Study of Inscriptions 

One of the largest advances in understanding early Indian history came in the 1830s, when James Prinsep decoded the Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts found on India’s ancient inscriptions and coins. 

These inscriptions frequently mention a king called Piyadassi, who was later identified as Ashoka. The study of these inscriptions (epigraphy) provided the foundation for reconstructing political histories and understanding the rise of dynasties.

The Mahajanapadas 

Around the sixth century BCE, early states known as the sixteen mahajanapadas developed. These were prominent kingdoms and oligarchies like Magadha, Vajji, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara, and Avanti. Mahajanapadas were often ruled by kings, though some like the Vajji sangha were governed by groups of rajas. 

Capital cities were fortified, and rulers depended on taxes and raids for resources. New social and administrative norms emerged, guided by Sanskrit texts called the Dharmasutras.

• Most mahajanapadas maintained armies and bureaucracies of varying sizes and structures.
• Inscriptions are key sources for dating events and understanding political boundaries.

Rise of Magadha 

From the sixth to fourth centuries BCE, Magadha emerged as the most powerful state due to its fertile land, iron ore resources, elephants for military strength, and river routes for trade and communication. 

Its capital moved from Rajagaha (Rajgir) to Pataliputra, positioning Magadha at strategic crossroads. Besides material advantages, sources also credit the ambitions of rulers like Bimbisara and Ajatasattu.

The Mauryan Empire 

The growth of Magadha led to the first major empire in India—the Mauryan Empire, founded by Chandragupta Maurya (c. 321 BCE) and expanded by Ashoka, who is especially remembered for his conquest of Kalinga. 

A variety of sources shed light on Mauryan rule: archaeological remains, Ashokan edicts, the Arthashastra, and foreign accounts. Ashoka was the first Indian king to inscribe messages directly to his people, often promoting moral values (dhamma) and respect for all communities.

Administration and Cities 

The Mauryan Empire had multiple political centres, with Pataliputra as the capital and regional hubs like Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali, and Suvarnagiri. Ashoka’s edicts were found across his empire, in different scripts and languages. 

The administration included officers overseeing land measurement, tax collection, irrigation, and crafts. Communication over large distances, enabled by roads and riverine routes, was key to holding the empire together.

Notions of Kingship 

After the Mauryas, new forms of kingship emerged. In the south, chiefdoms (like the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas) were described in Sangam literature as societies where chiefs received gifts and patronised poets rather than levying taxes. 

Later rulers, such as the Kushanas and Guptas, claimed divine status (e.g., the Kushana kings styled themselves as “sons of god”). Local lords or samantas often gained importance. Royal eulogies, called prashastis, mixed factual events with poetic praise.

The Rural Landscape and Agriculture 

Rural society underwent major transformation with the expansion of plough agriculture, especially in the Ganga and Kaveri valleys. The use of iron ploughshares and water management innovations (wells, tanks, and canals) increased yields. 

Social divisions deepened, with landless labourers, small peasants, and large landowners (gahapatis or vellalar) identified in both northern and southern texts. Land disputes were frequent, so marking boundaries became important.

• Village life often reflected tensions with the state, as seen in tales like the Gandatindu Jataka.
• Land grants to Brahmanas and institutions became more common from the early centuries CE, creating new rural elites and often exempting land from regular taxes.

Growth of Towns and Trade 

Large towns and urban centres developed along key trade routes from c. 6th century BCE. Cities such as Pataliputra, Ujjayini, Mathura, and Puhar became hubs of administration and commerce. 

Archaeological finds—fine pottery (Northern Black Polished Ware), beads, ornaments, and tools—reflect both elite lifestyles and a varied craft production.

• Guilds (shrenis) managed crafts and trades, usually run by skilled craftsmen.
• We get direct records of urban artisans, donors, and even some women from votive inscriptions.

Extensive trade occurred within India and linked the subcontinent to Central Asia, West Asia, Egypt, East Africa, Southeast Asia, and China. 

Local rulers often controlled the routes and benefited from trade taxes. Merchants and guilds grew wealthy, handling goods like spices, textiles, medicinal plants, and gemstones, as described in texts like the "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea."

Coins and Economy 

From the 6th century BCE, punch-marked coins appeared. Later, Indo-Greek, Kushana, and Gupta rulers issued coins with royal images, symbols, and precious metals. These currencies facilitated large-scale trade and are an important archaeological source for historians (numismatics). Even some tribal republics issued their own coins.

Deciphering Inscriptions and Their Limits 

Most modern Indian scripts are derived from Brahmi, deciphered in the 19th century. Key breakthroughs came by matching letters across coins and inscriptions in multiple scripts. Inscriptions, though invaluable for understanding history, are sometimes incomplete or damaged; many are yet to be discovered.

They generally reflect the concerns of powerful individuals and major events, so historians cross-check them with other sources such as literature and archaeology.

Timelines chart the rise of key dynasties, advances in epigraphy, and milestones like the decipherment of Brahmi, the early empires, and the development of coinage. Short answer and essay questions encourage students to engage with evidence, sources, and debates about early Indian society and state power.

Class 12 History Chapter 2 Notes – Kings, Farmers and Towns: Complete Revision Guide

These Class 12 History Chapter 2 notes present all important facts from “Kings, Farmers and Towns” in a concise, readable way. Each topic is explained in simple language, making complex events and sources easy to grasp for students. Use these key points to strengthen your understanding before exams and improve answer presentation with confidence.

Quickly revise the emergence of early states, the Mauryan Empire, changing agrarian systems, kingship, and ancient trade. These revision notes cover facts from coins, inscriptions, and texts, supporting students in scoring better marks. Grasping essential points helps you tackle all question patterns in CBSE board exams efficiently.