Peasants, Zamindars and the State Class 12 History Chapter 8 CBSE Notes - 2025-26

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, around 85% of India's population lived in villages. Rural society was made up of relationships between peasants, the landed elites, and agencies like the Mughal state, all vying for a share of the agricultural produce. The Mughal administration heavily depended on agriculture for revenue and linked the villages to broader markets through trade.

Peasants formed the largest part of the rural society and were responsible for multiple tasks including tilling, sowing, and harvesting crops. Their work was seasonal, and they also contributed labour for agro-based goods like sugar and oil. Indian agriculture was not uniform, with regional variations due to dry lands, hilly tracts, and forested areas.

Our understanding of Mughal agrarian society comes mainly from court chronicles like the Ain-i Akbari by Abu’l Fazl, revenue records from various regions, and accounts left by the East India Company. The Ain recorded state measures to ensure cultivation and tax collection, but it reflects the viewpoint of elite officials rather than the peasants themselves.

Other sources such as local revenue records and company documents show instances of conflict, expectations of fairness, and the many forms of cooperation and competition among rural groups.

Indo-Persian sources describe peasants as raiyat, muzarian, kisan, or asami. There were two main types: khud-kashta (resident cultivators) and pahi-kashta (non-resident cultivators working on contracts). Average peasants owned little—rarely more than two ploughs and a pair of bullocks.

Land ownership was mostly individual, and agricultural land could be bought and sold. In Gujarat, an affluent peasant had about six acres; in Bengal, five to ten acres was considered relatively wealthy.

Agricultural expansion was supported by abundant land, labour, and the mobility of peasants. Monsoon rains were the mainstay, but in dry areas peasants depended on artificial irrigation like wells, tanks, and Persian wheels. The Mughal state invested in canal building and repair, such as in Punjab.

Farming used tools like light wooden ploughs and oxen-driven drills. Two main cropping seasons existed—kharif (autumn) and rabi (spring). This often led to two crops a year, and sometimes three. The Ain-i Akbari documented dozens of crop varieties per province, with Bengal alone producing 50 types of rice.

Several new crops like maize, tomatoes, potatoes, chillies, pineapple, and papaya were introduced in this era. Tobacco spread rapidly despite bans, and population growth reflected the prosperity brought by flexible agricultural systems.

Peasants had individual land ownership but also belonged to collective village communities. Rural society was deeply hierarchical with sharp caste-based inequalities. Lower castes, menial workers, and groups like the halalkhoran or mallahzadas were often segregated and denied representation in local bodies.

The village panchayat was a council of elders, usually landowners, led by a muqaddam or mandal. 

It managed accounts, handled disputes, and enforced caste boundaries. Artisans—potters, blacksmiths, carpenters, and others—were essential, providing goods and services in exchange for grain or other payments rather than cash.

Despite the term "little republic," villages were not entirely self-sufficient or egalitarian, as access to land and power varied by caste and gender.

Rural women worked alongside men in almost every aspect of agriculture: sowing, weeding, threshing, and winnowing. They engaged in production activities like spinning trade, pottery, and embroidery. The demand for women’s labour increased with the commercialisation of certain crops.

Women also worked in non-agricultural roles, such as construction or market activities, challenging the strict separation of home and outside work. However, access to land and property often remained limited for women.

Large forest tracts existed alongside settled agriculture, home to groups called jangli who lived off forest produce, hunting, and shifting cultivation. 

These groups came into contact with the Mughal authorities and settled farmers, sometimes trading with the plains or adjusting to intrusions like the clearing of forests for cultivation.

There was dynamic interaction between forest dwellers and settled communities, including the movement of goods and resources. Sources describe the impact of expanding agriculture on forests, including the displacement of wildlife and indigenous tribes.

Zamindars were not mere revenue collectors; they were influential landed elites with large property (milkiyat), special privileges, and even military resources. Many zamindars collected taxes for the Mughal state and maintained their own armies, sometimes resisting central authority.

Their power derived from land control, social status, economic privileges, and the ability to mobilize military forces. The large military resources of zamindars are noted in the Ain-i Akbari, making their support important for the Mughal state.

Agriculture was the financial backbone of the Mughal Empire. Akbar’s administration classified land into categories like polaj (cultivated yearly), parauti (temporarily fallow), chachar (fallow for 3–4 years), and banjar (fallow for more than five). Revenue was usually one-third of normal produce, assessed either in cash or kind.

Methods included measurement of fields (kankut), crop sharing (batai), and dividing produce after harvest or sowing. The system aimed to balance state interests with peasant welfare, encouraging both cultivation and fair taxation.

Trade in agricultural goods and handicrafts drew large quantities of silver into India, especially from European and Asian traders. Villages dealt not just in kind but also involved money-changers and bankers, signifying the importance of a cash economy.

Mughal coins like Akbar’s and Aurangzeb’s rupya symbolized this monetary integration. The movement of precious metals and the growth of trade enhanced both state revenues and rural prosperity.

Compiled by Abu’l Fazl, the Ain-i Akbari was a grand survey of Akbar’s empire, listing revenue, administration, society, and economy in detail. It was created through questioning officials, landholders, and experienced local figures.

While it is invaluable for historians, its elite perspective and possible bias in presenting Mughal rule as harmonious and strong must be kept in mind. Nevertheless, its detailed data has informed generations of research into Mughal agrarian life.

• 1526: Babur defeats Ibrahim Lodi at the Battle of Panipat, starting the Mughal dynasty.
• 1556–1605: Akbar’s reign; administrative reforms and the compilation of the Ain-i Akbari.
• 1605–1707: Reigns of Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb, with expansion of empire and consolidation of agrarian systems.
• 1765: Diwani of Bengal transferred to East India Company.
• 1857: End of the Mughal dynasty with Bahadur Shah II’s exile.

In summary, this chapter covers the complexity of Mughal agrarian society—farming techniques, rural social structures, women and artisans, revenue systems, the rise of zamindars, interactions with forest regions, and the impact of expanding trade.

Class 12 History Chapter 8 Notes – Peasants, Zamindars and The State: Key Points 

These concise Class 12 History Chapter 8 notes help you quickly review the major themes of agrarian society in Mughal India, highlighting key terms and concepts like zamindars, revenue systems, and rural social relations. Use these revision points to strengthen your understanding before exams and reinforce classroom learning.

Perfect for last-minute preparation, these notes cover important NCERT points and answer-focused details about peasants, agricultural practices, and village life. Boost your exam performance by revising these well-organised summaries that directly reflect CBSE board requirements.