What do You Understand by Political Formations?
The new political formations in 18th century India unveils several dramatic changes in Indian society. It was a chaotic period that led to the abolition of the Mughal Empire by several independent kingdoms. Aurangzeb was the sixth Mughal emperor to rule over the Indian subcontinent (1658 to 1707). However, after his demise in 1707, various internal and external pressures led to the fall of the empire and the reshaping of the newly independent Indian subcontinent.
To get an overview of eighteenth-century political formations, we will go through The Mughal Empire Crisis and Old Mughal Provinces. Along with this, we learn about the emergence of The Watan Jagirs, and The Sikhs, Marathas, and Jats.
The Crisis of Mughal Empire - End of The 17th Century
The end of the seventeenth century was the starting of the crisis for the Mughal Empire. Because of the prolonged war in Deccan, Aurangzeb had exhausted all his financial and military resources. Eventually, this led to the breakdown of the subsequent Mughal emperors since the imperial administration lost all its control.
Therefore, appointed governors began controlling the revenue offices and military administration. This gave them economic, political, and military powers over extended regions of the empire. The control over the regions started declining the revenue of the capital, and therefore, the downfall of the Mughal empire.
How Did the Demolish of The Mughal Empire Occur?
Rebellions started challenging the Mughal empires. Peasants, zamindars, and chieftains started capturing their economic resources to unite their positions. In general, the Mughal emperors, after Aurangzeb, could not manage these crises. In 1739, the ruler of Iran, named Nadir Shah, attacked and looted Delhi, taking away huge wealth. Additionally, the Afghan ruler – Ahmad Shah Abdali attacked the northern regions of India five times from 1748 to 1761.
The Mughal Empire got surrounded by problems around them. Two major categories were formed between their nobles, viz: the Iranis and the Turanis (also known as nobles of Turkish descent). These groups alternatively controlled the empire for a long period.
The worst was coming near. The assassination of two Mughal emperors, Farrukh Siyar (1713-1719) and Alamgir II (1754-1759), and the blinding of two others, Ahmad Shah (1748-1754) and Shah Alam II (1759-1816) by their nobles led to the decline of the Mughal Empire which led to the new political formations.
New Political Formations in the 18th Century- Emergence of New States
Across the entire eighteenth century, the Mughal Empire split into multiple independent regional states. Therefore, three groups were formed:
The old Mughal provinces. The rulers of these states sustained their ties with the Mughal emperor.
Several Rajput principalities had relished independence during the Mughal reign in their Watan Jagirs.
The emergence of Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, and others like them: These members fought a long battle against the Mughals to free themselves from domination.
List of All Mughal Provinces
The three major states named Awadh, Bengal, and Hyderabad were founded by members of the high Mughal generosity who had been governors of large provinces of the three states, respectively:
Awadh - Sa‘adat Khan
Bengal - Murshid Quli Khan
Hyderabad - Asaf Jah
Awadh- Sa‘adat Khan
Awadh was a wealthy region, controlling the rich alluvial Ganga plain and the principal trade path between north India and Bengal. In 1722, Burhan-ul-Mulk Sa‘adat Khan was appointed as the subadar (governor) of Awadh. Burhan-ul-Mulk was responsible for managing the political, financial, and military matters of Awadh. He decreased the Mughal influence in the province by reducing the number of jagirdars (office-holders) appointed by the Mughals and appointed his unswerving servants in the vacant positions.
Also, he allowed moneylenders and bankers to be active participants in the state’s revenue system. Basically, this was a huge shift from the earlier Mahajans and local bankers.
Bengal - Murshid Quli Khan
Murshid Quli Khan, Deputy to the Governor of Bengal, was quick in capturing power and controlling the revenue administration of the state. He transferred all Mughal-appointed jagirdars to Orissa and ordered a state-wide evaluation of revenues in Bengal. Also, revenue was accumulated from the zamindars in cash. Consequently, several zamindars borrowed cash from the moneylenders and bankers to pay the administration.
Hyderabad - Asaf Jah
Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah, the most effective member in the court of the Mughal Emperor Farrukh Siyar was entrusted with the obligation of Governor of the Deccan provinces. However, he brought skillful administrators and soldiers from the northern states and offered jagirs to win their loyalty. He additionally dominated independently without consulting the capital.
At the moment, Hyderabad was in a consistent fight with the Marathas and the Telugu warrior leader since Asaf Jah desired to control the wealthy Coromandel Coast. However, with the British reinforcing in the east, he was kept in check.
All the nobles believed by the Mughal Empire exploited their power. Also, they helped grow the practice of revenue collectors which the Mughals disapproved of. All these nobles had robust relationships with wealthy bankers and moneylenders. The eighteenth-century political formations had begun to show a new order and the most important stakeholders were the bankers and moneylenders.
Emergence of Sikhs
Guru Gobind Singh fought many battles in opposition to the Rajputs and Mughals and united the Sikhs into a political network with the institution of Khalsa in 1699. All the leaders that followed organized Sikhs into an effective force living the core notion of Khalsa – to RULE. Also, this unit put up a strong resistance to the Mughal Empire and Ahmad Shah Abdali.
In 1765, the Khalsa announced their sovereign rule from the Indus to the Jamuna. Unfortunately, the rule was divided into 3 distinct Sikh rulers. Maharaja Ranjit Singh efficiently managed to reunite them in the late eighteenth century and established his capital at Lahore in 1799.
The Emergence of Marathas
Shivaji (1627 – 1680), created an effective local Maratha nation that stood bravely in opposition to the Mughal rule. He challenged the Mughal presence in the Indian peninsular area. Subsequently, after his demise, his Peshwas took charge. Also, the Peshwas took the Maratha regime to higher army levels.
By the 1730s, the Maratha king was declared as the ruler of the whole Deccan Peninsula and had the right to levy Chauth and sardeshmukhi in the area. Eventually, Maratha domination unfolds in Rajasthan, Punjab, Orissa, Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and many different states.
However, these army campaigns grew to become other rulers hostile towards them and they were located with no help at some point of the third battle of Panipat in 1761. The Marathas were additionally first-rate in growing a powerful administrative system over newly gained regions.
The Emergence of Jats
During this era, Jats united and received control over the area lying west of Delhi. By the late 17th century, they had domination over Delhi and Agra. Basically, Jats were brilliant agriculturists and were instrumental in the development of Panipat and Ballabgarh as critical trading centers in the area.
When Nadir Shah attacked Delhi in 1739, Suraj Mal was mainly the Jats. However, his son – Jawahir Shah along with Maratha and Sikh troops put up strong opposition to the Mughals too.
Facts on the 18th Century in India
Do you know what the 18th century reminds us of? Well! The 18th century reminds us of the shrinking of the reign of the Mughal empire for the first half of the century, however, in the second half, the British started creating a strong presence in Eastern India. Therefore, new formations changed the structure of power and originated important social and economic changes.
The eighteenth-century impacted the structure of Mughal power and initiated important social and economic changes. The first transition appeared in the first half of the century from the Mughal Empire to the regional political orders.
Conclusion
So, this was an overview of eighteenth-century political formations with an elaborated history. You also learned the facts of how the 18th century had a great impact on the Indian subcontinent. Now, let us go through some facts on the 18th century in India. We also got to learn about the new political formations in the 18th century. All these formations were the result of the weakening of the Mughal Empire. When the great Mughal empire was on the verge of declining, the local administrators declared themselves independent one by one. Later, the Europeans also got the opportunity to establish their power on the land.
FAQs on An Overview to All Political Formations in India During the Eighteenth Century
1. What were the main types of political formations that emerged in 18th-century India after the Mughal decline?
During the 18th century, the weakening of the Mughal Empire led to the emergence of several independent and semi-independent regional states. These can be broadly categorised into three groups:
- Old Mughal Provinces: States like Awadh, Bengal, and Hyderabad, which were founded by powerful Mughal nobles who carved out their own domains.
- Watan Jagirs: These were Rajput principalities that had enjoyed considerable autonomy under the Mughals and asserted greater independence during this period.
- New States: States established by groups that had fought long-drawn battles against Mughal authority, such as the Marathas, Sikhs, and Jats.
2. What were the primary causes for the crisis and decline of the Mughal Empire in the 18th century?
The decline of the Mughal Empire was caused by a combination of factors. Emperor Aurangzeb's long and costly war in the Deccan drained the empire's military and financial resources. His successors were weak and could not control the powerful nobles, who were divided into factions like the Iranis and Turanis. Furthermore, peasant and zamindar rebellions challenged imperial authority. Invasions by foreign rulers like Nadir Shah of Iran (1739) and Ahmad Shah Abdali of Afghanistan further crippled the empire, leading to its eventual fragmentation.
3. How did the governors of provinces like Awadh, Bengal, and Hyderabad become so powerful?
The governors of these wealthy provinces consolidated their power by taking several strategic steps. They gained control over both the political (subadari) and financial (diwani) administration of their territories. Key figures like Sa‘adat Khan in Awadh, Murshid Quli Khan in Bengal, and Asaf Jah in Hyderabad began to:
- Appoint their own loyal servants to key positions, reducing Mughal influence.
- Reorganise the revenue system to increase their own income.
- Operate with significant independence from the central Mughal authority in Delhi.
This allowed them to effectively rule as independent monarchs while still nominally acknowledging the Mughal emperor.
4. What were 'chauth' and 'sardeshmukhi' in the context of the Maratha empire?
Chauth and sardeshmukhi were two important taxes levied by the Maratha kingdom on territories they controlled or influenced. Chauth was a tax equivalent to 25% (one-fourth) of the land revenue, demanded in return for a promise not to raid the territory. Sardeshmukhi was an additional 10% tax levied on the basis of the claim that the Maratha king was the hereditary 'Sardeshmukh' or chief headman of the entire Deccan.
5. How did the Sikhs organise themselves into a powerful political force in the 18th century?
The Sikhs were organised into a strong political and military community, largely due to the foundation of the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699. After him, leaders like Banda Bahadur led a fierce struggle against the Mughals. Later, the Sikhs organised themselves into bands called jathas and later misls. Their combined forces were known as the Dal Khalsa. They successfully resisted Mughal governors and Ahmad Shah Abdali, eventually establishing their sovereign rule. By the end of the century, Maharaja Ranjit Singh reunited these groups and established a powerful Sikh kingdom with its capital at Lahore.
6. Who were the Jats, and how did they consolidate their power?
The Jats were prosperous agriculturalists who consolidated their power in the regions to the west of Delhi during the late 17th and 18th centuries. Under leaders like Churaman, they acquired control over territories and built a strong kingdom. Their power reached its peak under Suraj Mal, who established the kingdom of Bharatpur as a formidable state. He is known for developing important trading centres like Panipat and Ballabgarh and offering strong resistance to invaders.
7. Why is the 18th century in India often seen as a period of both political chaos and regional dynamism?
The 18th century is viewed in two ways. On one hand, it was a period of political chaos due to the collapse of the central Mughal authority, frequent warfare, and devastating foreign invasions. On the other hand, it was also a period of regional dynamism. The decline of the empire created opportunities for ambitious provincial governors, local chieftains, and warrior groups to establish their own states. These new regional kingdoms, like Hyderabad, Bengal, and the Maratha state, developed effective administrative systems and patronised trade and culture, leading to economic growth in their respective regions.
8. What were 'watan jagirs' and how did the Rajputs try to expand their influence from them?
Watan jagirs were the ancestral homelands of Rajput rulers, which they were allowed to govern with considerable autonomy as part of the Mughal empire. In the 18th century, as Mughal power weakened, these rulers sought to expand their influence beyond their watan jagirs. They tried to seize the imperial territories adjacent to their homelands. For example, Raja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur and Sawai Raja Jai Singh of Amber (Jaipur) became governors of large provinces like Gujarat and Malwa, extending their control and solidifying their power in the region.
