Contemporary Centres of Power Class 12 Political Science Chapter 2 CBSE Notes 2025-26

After the Cold War ended in the early 1990s, power in world politics shifted from just two dominant blocks to include multiple centres of influence. The European Union (EU), Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), China, Japan and South Korea all emerged as important players shaping the international order. Together, their rise has brought new models of economic growth, cooperation, and regional integration.

The EU was formed as Western European countries sought recovery and unity after World War II. The Marshall Plan offered US financial aid to rebuild economies, and the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) was founded in 1948. Economic and later political integration grew step by step: the European Economic Community (EEC) was created in 1957, followed by the European Parliament. The EU itself was officially established by the Maastricht Treaty in 1992, eventually bringing together a common currency (euro), foreign policy, and expanded cooperation.

The EU acts as a supranational organisation but faces challenges. While it has its own flag, anthem and founding date, attempts to finalize a unified constitution failed due to differences among members. Some countries, notably the UK, Denmark, and Sweden, remained hesitant about deeper integration or adopting the euro. Despite such differences, the EU wields substantial economic and diplomatic power.

The EU’s GDP was projected at about $19.35 trillion in 2024, making it one of the world’s largest economies. With its common market, the EU controls a significant share of world trade and influences global economic rules through organisations like the WTO. The “Schengen Agreement” allows hassle-free movement across many member states, supporting integration and tourism.

• France represents the EU with a permanent seat in the UN Security Council.
• The EU’s combined armed forces are second only to the US, and France maintains a significant nuclear arsenal within the EU framework.
• Euroscepticism in some member countries limits the EU’s ability to act with one voice, especially in foreign and defense policies.

The continued addition of new members and the resilience of the EU’s economic and diplomatic blocs make it a significant regional and global actor.

• 1951: Treaty of Paris establishes ECSC (6 countries)
• 1957: Treaties of Rome form EEC and Euratom
• 1985: Schengen Agreement abolishes many border controls
• 1992: Treaty of Maastricht creates the European Union
• 2002: Introduction of the Euro
• 2016: Brexit referendum – the UK votes to leave the EU

ASEAN was formed in 1967 by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. Its primary goal was to promote rapid economic growth and regional peace after the turmoil of colonisation and the Second World War. Over time, Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Cambodia joined, making ASEAN a 10-member group. Its approach, called the “ASEAN Way,” values informal, non-confrontational, and cooperative relations, stressing respect for each nation’s sovereignty.

ASEAN avoids supranational structures. In 2003, ASEAN agreed on three main pillars — the ASEAN Security Community, ASEAN Economic Community, and ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community — to deepen cooperation. The ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), set up in 1994, coordinates its security and foreign policies. Fast economic growth has propelled ASEAN’s influence in Asia and beyond.

• The Economic Community aims for a common market and production base.
• Dispute Settlement Mechanism improves regional cooperation.
• Free Trade Areas with Asia’s giants (China, India, US) have been signed.
• Vision 2020 gives ASEAN an outward-looking and active international role.

India has boosted ties with ASEAN under its “Look East” and later “Act East” policy, leading to more robust economic and political engagement, including the ASEAN-India Free Trade Agreement (FTA).

China’s rapid economic rise began with reforms from 1978. Transitioning away from the communist command system, China adopted step-wise reforms such as the privatisation of agriculture (1982), industry (1998), and the creation of Special Economic Zones. The state still sets broad goals, but foreign investment and trade have driven exponential growth, making China the world’s main hub for FDI.

China’s high growth rates—often over 8% annually—have led to huge trade surpluses and foreign currency reserves. However, challenges remain. Economic reforms have created regional and rural-urban inequalities, environmental degradation, and rising unemployment in some sectors. Still, China is now recognized as a major regional and global power, shaping the world economic order and stabilizing Asian economies (as in the 1997 Asian financial crisis).

India and China are Asia’s two most populous and growing nations, sharing ancient histories but limited direct interaction. Their modern relationship was troubled by the 1962 border conflict over Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh, and tensions over Tibet. Diplomatic ties improved from the late 1970s onwards.

Since the 1990s, trade and dialogue have expanded, greatly improving interactions. Both cooperate in international forums and have agreed on various mechanisms to manage border security. Recent years, however, have seen renewed tensions due to border disputes, China’s involvement in the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor, and differences at the UN, but both sides aim for peaceful engagement.

Japan is renowned for its technological excellence and global brands despite lacking natural resources. As the world’s third largest economy and member of the G-7, Japan also plays a pivotal role in global institutions and supports major UN initiatives. Its security pact with the US allows Japan to focus mainly on economic growth.

South Korea rose from post-war devastation to become the eleventh largest economy, driven by human development, infrastructure, export-oriented industries, and famed companies like Samsung, LG, and Hyundai. It is recognized for high human development, equitable growth, and a strong partnership with India.

• Regional organisations help maintain peace, drive economic growth, and negotiate cooperation in global issues.
• India’s closer ties with ASEAN and East Asian nations reflect changing priorities in world politics.
• Cooperation, flexibility, and regional dialogue mechanisms remain crucial for managing disputes and building prosperity.

Class 12 Political Science Chapter 2 Notes – Contemporary Centres of Power: Complete Revision Points

These Class 12 Political Science Chapter 2 Revision Notes cover all major centres of power after the Cold War, including the EU, ASEAN, China, Japan, and South Korea. Key points, timelines, and summary tables make understanding global power shifts simple and visual. Use these notes for a quick overview before exams or classroom discussions.

Focusing on both political and economic aspects, these notes help grasp the unique features of each region and their growing influence in world politics. The easy language and structured bullet points assist learners in recalling the key facts and connections across regions. Ideal for last-minute revision and understanding trends in contemporary world politics.