Geographical Perspective On Selected Issues And Problems Class 12 Geography Chapter 9 CBSE Notes 2025-26

India faces several critical geographical issues linked to environmental and social challenges, notably environmental pollution, rural to urban migration, the growth of slums, and land degradation. 

Pollution is divided into air, water, land, and noise types, each with wide-ranging impacts on people, property, and natural ecosystems. Cities and rural areas alike struggle with environmental stress due to industrialization, urbanization, and unsustainable practices.

Environmental pollution arises mainly from waste released by human activities. Air, water, land, and noise pollution are interconnected and often stem from the rapid increase in population and industrial growth. 

Surface water is never entirely pure, but excessive discharge of pollutants from natural and mainly human sources overwhelms water bodies, making them unfit for human use.

• Air pollution comes mainly from burning fuels, industrial activities, and waste disposal.
• Water pollution is aggravated by untreated sewage, industrial effluents, and chemicals from agriculture.
• Land pollution results from uncollected garbage, hazardous waste, and excess chemicals.
• Noise pollution is a growing issue in cities, mainly due to vehicles, industries, construction, and social events.

Major pollutants include oxides of sulphur and nitrogen, heavy metals like lead and mercury, particulate matter, household and industrial wastes, and noise above permissible limits. The table below summarises the main types and sources:

Water pollution has become severe due to the combined effect of urban wastewater, industrial discharge, chemical fertilisers, and cultural activities. 

Some of the worst-affected rivers include the Ganga and Yamuna. In places like Kanpur and Delhi, both industry and city sewage are discharged directly into the rivers. Agricultural runoff adds pesticides and fertilisers, raising nitrate content in water.

• Ganga: Faces industrial pollution downstream of Kanpur, domestic waste from cities like Varanasi and Patna, and dumping of carcasses.
• Yamuna: Receives poorly treated municipal and industrial waste in Delhi; severe agricultural runoff in Mathura and Agra.

Nearly all surface water sources are contaminated, causing diseases like diarrhoea, hepatitis, and intestinal worms. The Namami Gange Programme aims to address these with sewerage treatment, monitoring of industry, riverfront development, afforestation, and community awareness.

Air pollution mainly results from the burning of coal, petrol, diesel, industrial emissions, and waste combustion. It is responsible for respiratory illnesses, nervous system disorders, heart diseases, and aggravates existing health problems. 

Smog, especially in large cities, can reduce visibility, threaten health, and lead to acid rains that harm plants, water bodies, and buildings.

• Cities like Mumbai frequently experience dangerous smog levels.
• Industrial zones, heavy traffic areas, and mines are peak risk sites.

Noise pollution is increasing with urban expansion and faster technology adoption. Sources include vehicles, airplanes, construction, loudspeakers, sirens, and community events. 

It causes discomfort, sleep disturbance, stress, and sometimes leads to hearing loss or heart problems. The impact is worse near heavy traffic zones, airports, and industrial clusters.

With rising city population and changes in lifestyles, waste generation has increased substantially. Municipal solid waste includes metals, plastic, glass, polythene, bio-waste, electronics, and industrial scraps. 

While cities like Mumbai and Bengaluru manage to collect about 90% of waste, other urban areas often leave 30–50% of waste uncollected, creating large heaps on streets and wastelands.

• Garbage heaps become breeding grounds for pests, spreading diseases.
• Untreated waste emits harmful gases like methane.
• Waste can be used productively as compost or energy resource.

A case study from Daurala (near Meerut) highlights how polluted groundwater from untreated industrial waste was addressed by community action—improving water supply, desilting ponds, building rainwater harvesting structures, and planting trees.

India’s cities attract migrants from villages due to better job prospects and wages, while lack of rural development and high population pressures push people away from villages. 

Many migrants are poor, semi-literate, and work in unorganised sectors, often leading to separation from families and other hardships. Overpopulation leads to an expansion of city boundaries, often merging previous rural settlements into urban areas.

A case from Odisha shows how Ramesh, a skilled labourer, migrated to several cities in search of employment. Though migration improved his family's standard of living, it also caused family separation and cultural assimilation challenges.

Slums, also called “jhuggi-jhopari” clusters, are dense settlements where migrants and the urban poor live. Homes are often temporary, crowded, with poor ventilation, sanitation, and no proper water or toilets. 

People resort to open defecation and face frequent disease outbreaks. Slum dwellers mostly work in insecure, low-paid jobs, making them vulnerable to exploitation.

• Dharavi, Mumbai, is Asia’s largest slum; passageways are so narrow that even bicycles cannot enter.
• Government programmes like Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) focus on improving sanitation and infrastructure in slums.

Agricultural land in India is degrading due to soil erosion, excessive use, waterlogging, salinity, and overuse of chemicals. Over time, productive land becomes wasteland if degraded land is not restored. Wastelands are classified by the NRSC as natural (like ravines, rocky lands) or man-made (due to salinity, deforestation, mining, shifting cultivation).

Restoration initiatives are producing positive results. For example, in Jhabua (Madhya Pradesh), locals worked with NGOs and government agencies to plant trees, install social fences, and reclaim common property resources, improving both the environment and rural incomes.

• Soil and water quality improved with collective action.
• Strong partnerships between government, NGOs, and communities foster sustainable land use.

Exercises at the end of the chapter provide effective revision on major points like causes and types of pollution, migration, slums, and land management, helping students prepare well for exams.

Class 12 Geography Chapter 9 Notes – Geographical Perspective on Selected Issues and Problems

These concise CBSE Class 12 Geography notes for Chapter 9 cover Geographical Perspective on Selected Issues and Problems, making revision faster and more effective. Each topic is summarised with key facts, tables, and real-life examples for quick understanding. Friendly explanations help students grasp important aspects for board exam preparation.

Studying these notes will help you recall main points about pollution, migration, slums, and land degradation in India. The chapter’s structured format and highlighted case studies ensure all major NCERT topics are included for better scoring in exams.