Bricks, Beads and Bones Class 12 History Chapter 1 CBSE Notes- 2025-26

The Harappan or Indus Valley Civilisation was one of the earliest urban cultures in history, known for its advanced town planning, trade, and social organization. Its name comes from Harappa, the first site discovered, but the civilisation covered areas of present-day Pakistan and northwest India between 6000 BCE and 1300 BCE. 

Archaeological finds from Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira, Rakhigarhi, Ganweriwala, and other sites include pottery, bricks, tools, ornaments, beads, and seals. Even though the script remains undeciphered, archaeologists have pieced together much information about this civilisation from material remains.

Terminology, Geography, and Time Periods The Harappan Civilisation is also called the Indus Valley Civilisation. Early Harappan refers to the formative stage (6000 BCE–2600 BCE), followed by the Mature Harappan, the peak urban phase (2600 BCE–1900 BCE), and then the Late Harappan (1900 BCE–1300 BCE), marking its decline. Harappan artefacts have been found as far as Afghanistan and in most northwestern Indian states, including Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.

Major Sites and Features Over 2,000 Harappan sites are known, mostly along the Indus and Saraswati river systems. The five major cities were Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira, Rakhigarhi, and Ganweriwala. Cities usually had two parts: a higher Citadel, often for public buildings, and a Lower Town for houses.

• Harappan sites appear in modern Punjab, Sindh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, and beyond.
• Most settlements are near rivers, indicating the importance of water in agriculture and life.
• Famous sites: Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira, Lothal, Kalibangan, Banawali, Rakhigarhi.

Subsistence Strategies: Food and Agriculture Harappans grew wheat, barley, lentils, chickpeas, sesame, and millet. Rice is rare, mostly found in Gujarat. Animal bones show cattle, sheep, goats, buffaloes, pigs, and some wild species. Fish and fowl were also consumed.

Agriculture was well developed, as seen in remains of grains, irrigation facilities, plough models, and evidence from Kalibangan of fields with double furrows for crop rotation. Terracotta models of the plough and bull indicate animal-driven farming.

Town Planning and Architecture The cities were carefully planned with straight streets meeting at right angles, brick-lined houses, and impressive drainage systems. Mohenjodaro showcased efficient drainage and sewage, public wells, bathrooms, and the impressive Great Bath on the Citadel. Structures included warehouses, public granaries, and large houses for wealthy citizens.

• Rectangular grid pattern in cities.
• Standardized baked bricks used for buildings.
• Separate public and private wells.
• Advanced covered drains along streets.

Crafts, Technology, and Trade Harappans were skilled in bead-making, metallurgy, pottery, weaving, and tool-making. Centres like Chanhudaro specialized in bead production. Craftspersons used stones such as carnelian, jasper, and steatite for beads, copper and bronze for tools, and faience for decorative objects.

Raw materials such as copper (from Rajasthan and Oman), tin (from Afghanistan), gold (from Karnataka), and precious stones were procured via trade, both within the subcontinent and with places like Mesopotamia. Evidence of Harappan weights, seals, and objects have been found in Oman and the Gulf, proving the existence of long-distance trade.

Seals, Script, and Weights Seals made of steatite often depicted animal motifs and an undeciphered script. These were likely used for ownership marks and trade documentation.

The script is pictographic and is yet to be read. Harappan seals show short lines of symbols. Stone weights in binary and decimal systems show precise measurement in trade.

Society and Social Differences Burial patterns and grave goods reflect social differences. Some graves had valuable items, while others had only basic offerings, pointing to varying wealth or status. Artefacts are described as utilitarian (used by common people) or luxurious (for wealthy).

Luxury items included crafted beads, gold ornaments, and faience objects. Copper mirrors, pots, and toys show aspects of daily life and status.

Authority and Administration The presence of uniform bricks, city layouts, weights, and artefacts suggests some form of centralized authority. Special structures, such as the Great Bath and warehouse at Mohenjodaro, indicate organized planning. There is no evidence of palaces or clear rulers, but artifacts like the "priest-king" statue hint at leadership roles.

Decline of the Harappan Civilisation Around 1900 BCE, many cities were abandoned and left in ruins. Factors cited include climate change, river shifts, declining trade, and resource shortages. New research, including DNA studies at sites like Rakhigarhi, shows continuity with later communities, challenging older ideas about invasion.

Discovery and Archaeological Methods British engineer Cunningham first noticed Harappan seals in the 19th century but couldn't date them accurately. Systematic excavations by Indian and foreign archaeologists in the 20th century, such as at Mohenjodaro and Harappa, confirmed the existence of a great ancient civilisation. Techniques improved over time, with careful stratigraphy and carbon dating developing the field.

Archaeologists classify artefacts based on material, function, and context, but some interpretations—such as religious beliefs (mother goddess figurines, proto-Shiva seals)—remain debated. Archaeology continues to refine our understanding of diverse aspects like daily life, rituals, technology, and social structure.

Key Timelines

• First excavations at Harappa: 1921; Mohenjodaro: 1922
• Peak of Harappan Civilisation: c. 2600–1900 BCE
• Late Harappan phase and decline: 1900–1300 BCE
• Major research breakthroughs: 1946 (Wheeler), 2013 (Rakhigarhi DNA analysis)

The study of the Harappan Civilisation is ongoing, with new findings adding to our knowledge every year. It is an essential chapter for understanding the origins of urbanism, trade, and culture in ancient India.

Class 12 History Chapter 1 Notes – Bricks, Beads and Bones: Key Points for Quick Revision

These Class 12 History Chapter 1 notes summarise the vital aspects of the Harappan Civilisation, covering settlements, urban planning, scripts, trade, and decline. Use these well-organised points for quick revision before exams and to build a clear understanding of ancient Indian history.

Whether you need to brush up on key Harappan features or reinforce important dates and facts, these notes are structured for easy recall. Perfect for CBSE and competitive exam preparation where concise, accurate revision is essential.