Who was Augustus?
Augustus led Rome's transformation from republic to empire as the first Roman emperor (though he never claimed the title for himself) during the deafening years after the assassination of his great-uncle and adoptive father Julius Caesar. To become Rome's sole ruler, he effectively combined military force, institution-building, and lawmaking, establishing the foundations for the 200-year Pax Romana (Roman Peace) and an empire that lasted nearly 1,500 years in various forms.
Let us look at Augustus and the roman empire, including the Octavian victory from this article.
King Augustus: The First Emperor of the Roman Empire
Historians favour three of Augustus' various names and honorifics, each for a different period of the emperor's life. He was recognized as Octavius from the time of his birth in 63 B.C., Octavian after his adoption was announced in 44 B.C., and King Augustus beginning in 26 B.C. by the Roman Senate. Gaius Octavius Thurinus was born at Velletri, about 20 miles from Rome. In the Roman Republic, his father served as a senator and governor. Octavius was raised in part by his grandmother Julia Caesar, Caesar's sister, while his mother Atai was Caesar's niece.
At the age of 16, Octavius put on the toga, the Roman sign of adulthood, and began taking on responsibilities as a result of his family connections. He went to Hispania (modern-day Spain) in 47 B.C. to battle alongside Caesar. He was shipwrecked along the way and forced to cross enemy territory to reach his great-uncle, a deed that so pleased Caesar that he named Octavius as his heir and successor in his will.
King Augustus was a capable and visionary ruler, and the Senate declared him a Roman god upon his death.
Caesar Augustus, the first emperor of the Roman Empire, is supposed to be shown in the statue below.
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Augustus’ Path to Power
When news of Caesar's death and his own inheritance reached Octavius, he was 17 years old and living in Apollonia (present Albania). Octavian's supporters rallied around him against their powerful foe Mark Antony, including many senators. However, after Octavian's men defeated Antony's army in northern Italy, the future emperor chose an uneasy alliance with his rival over an all-out pursuit of Antony.
The Second Triumvirate was created in 43 B.C. by Octavian, Antony, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. It is a power-sharing agreement, which divided Rome's territories among them, with Antony handing the Octavian the West, Lepidus Africa, East. Antony started to love and political alliance with Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, in 41 B.C., which lasted even after Octavian's sister, Octavia Minor, was forced to marry him by a Senatorial order. After the triumvirate was reconstituted in 37 B.C., Octavian finally had Lepidus dismissed as a minor figure.
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Antony's affair with Cleopatra continued, and he divorced Octavia in 32 B.C. Octavian responded by declaring war on Cleopatra. Octavian's fleet, led by his admiral Agrippa, surrounded and defeated Antony's ships in the naval battle of Actium a year later. Cleopatra's navy rushed to help her ally, but the two lovers barely made it out alive. They went back to Egypt and committed suicide, leaving Octavian as an undisputed ruler of Rome.
Family and Death
King Augustus married three times, the first time to Clodia Pulchra, Mark Antony's stepdaughter. Julia the Elder was born to his only child, Scribonia, his second wife. In 39 B.C., he divorced Livia Drusilla, who had two boys by her first husband, Mark Antony's supporter Tiberius Claudius Nero: Tiberius and Drusus. The family tree became more complicated after Augustus had his stepson Tiberius briefly marry his daughter and subsequently adopted Tiberius openly as son and successor in A.D. 4.
In the year 14 A.D., King Augustus Caesar died, his empire secure and at peace. "I found Rome of clay; I leave it to you of marble," he said to his subjects, but to his friends who had stayed with him during his rise to power, he added, "Have I played the part well?" Then give me applause as I exit." Soon after that recognition of human weakness, the Roman Senate declared its departing emperor, like Julius Caesar before him, a god.
Roman Empire
At its height (c. 117 CE), the Roman Empire was the most effective political and social structure in Western history. By 285 CE, the empire had grown too large to be ruled by Rome, and Emperor Diocletian (r. 284-305 CE) separated it into a Western and an Eastern Empire. Augustus Caesar (r. 27 BCE-14 CE) became the first emperor of Rome, and the Roman Empire lasted until Germanic King Odoacer overthrew the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus (r. 475-476 CE), in the west (r. 476-493 CE).
Until the death of Constantine XI (r. 1449-1453 CE) and the Ottoman Turks' takeover of Constantinople in 1453 CE, it was known as the Byzantine Empire in the east. The Roman Empire had a major influence on western civilisation, with contributions to virtually every aspect of western culture.
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Octavian Victory
The Battle of Actium (Sep 2, 31 BC) was a naval battle off the coast of Greece, near a promontory north of Acarnania, in which Octavian (later known as Emperor Augustus) defeated Mark Antony and established himself as the undisputed ruler of the Roman world. Antony set up camp at Actium, on the southern side of a strait connecting the Ionian Sea and the Ambracian Gulf, with 500 ships and 70,000 soldiers. Octavian arrived from the north with 400 ships and 80,000 infantry and succeeded to limit Antony's southward communications with Egypt via the Peloponnese by occupying Patrae and Corinth.
Antony was forced to act due to desertions by some of his allies and a lack of provisions. Antony followed Cleopatra's advice to use the fleet, possibly trying to win at sea since he was outmanoeuvred on land or simply wanting to break the blockade. With Cleopatra's squadron behind him, he drew up his ships beyond the bay, facing west. The next naval battle was fiercely contested, with each side's squadrons attempting to outflank the other, until Cleopatra fled the battle with her Egyptian galleys.
Antony then split out and was able to monitor her down with the help of a few ships. Antony's land forces surrendered one week later after the rest of his fleet got disheartened and surrendered to Octavian.
Did you know?
King Augustus, like his great-uncle and predecessor Julius Caesar, had the Roman month of Sextilius renamed after himself in 8 B.C. August saw several of the Emperor's greatest victories, including Antony and Cleopatra's defeat and suicide. He did not extend the month, which had been 31 days since the Julian calendar was established in 45 B.C.
FAQs on Augustus and the Roman Empire
1. What were the most important contributions of Augustus to the Roman Empire?
Augustus made several monumental contributions that reshaped Rome. His most significant achievements include:
Ending the Civil Wars: He brought an end to nearly a century of civil strife, ushering in a period of stability.
Establishing the Pax Romana: He initiated the 'Roman Peace', a 200-year era of unprecedented peace and prosperity across the empire.
Administrative Reforms: He reorganised the tax system, created a permanent professional army and navy, established the Praetorian Guard, and developed an official courier system.
Massive Building Programs: He famously claimed he "found Rome a city of bricks and left it a city of marble," commissioning numerous temples, aqueducts, and public buildings.
2. How did Octavian become Augustus, the first Roman Emperor?
Octavian's rise to power was a masterful political journey. After his great-uncle Julius Caesar was assassinated, Octavian, as his adopted son and heir, formed the Second Triumvirate with Mark Antony and Lepidus to defeat their enemies. He eventually defeated the forces of Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE. Instead of declaring himself a king, he cleverly accepted the title of 'Augustus' (the revered one) and 'Princeps' (first citizen) from the Senate in 27 BCE, effectively becoming the first Roman Emperor while maintaining the appearance of a republic.
3. What was the 'Principate' that Augustus established?
The Principate is the term for the first period of the Roman Empire, established by Augustus. It was a political system where the 'Princeps' (first citizen) held the real power, including control of the military and treasury. Outwardly, the institutions of the Roman Republic, like the Senate and consuls, were maintained to give the impression that the traditional government was still in place. However, in reality, Augustus held supreme authority, making the Principate a monarchy disguised as a republic.
4. What exactly was the Pax Romana?
The Pax Romana, which means "Roman Peace" in Latin, refers to a long period of relative peace, minimal military expansion, and stability that began with the reign of Augustus around 27 BCE. Lasting for over 200 years, this era was crucial for the flourishing of trade, law, engineering, and culture across the vast Roman Empire, from Britain to the Middle East. It was the stability enforced by Augustus's reforms that made this extended period of peace possible.
5. How did the rule of Augustus differ from that of Julius Caesar?
The key difference lay in their political approach. Julius Caesar acted more like a traditional dictator, centralising power openly and sidelining the Senate, which led to his assassination by senators fearing a monarchy. In contrast, Augustus learned from Caesar's fate. He was careful to maintain the illusion of the Republic, showing great respect for the Senate in public and using titles like 'Princeps' instead of 'King'. This political subtlety allowed him to consolidate absolute power without provoking the same opposition, ensuring a long and stable reign.
6. Augustus claimed he 'restored the Republic'. To what extent is this statement accurate?
This statement is largely a piece of political propaganda. While Augustus did restore order, stability, and the functioning of some Republican institutions, he did not restore the Republic's true power structure. He concentrated military, financial, and political authority in his own hands. The Senate lost its independence and real decision-making power. So, while he ended the chaos of the late Republic, he replaced it with an autocracy, not a restored Republic. The 'restoration' was a facade to make his rule more acceptable to the Roman elite.
7. Why was the reform of the Roman army so important for Augustus's long-term success?
Reforming the army was crucial for several reasons. Firstly, by creating a standing, professional army loyal directly to the emperor, he eliminated the reliance on ambitious generals who had previously used their private armies to start civil wars. Secondly, a permanent army secured the vast borders of the empire, enabling the Pax Romana. Finally, the creation of the Praetorian Guard, an elite unit stationed in Rome, gave him a personal security force to enforce his authority and deter any potential challenges within the capital.
8. Was Augustus considered a 'good' emperor?
Historians view Augustus with nuance. On one hand, he is considered one of Rome's greatest leaders for ending the civil wars, initiating the Pax Romana, and establishing a stable system of government that lasted for centuries. On the other hand, his path to power was ruthless and bloody, involving proscriptions (political purges) and the elimination of all rivals. He effectively ended Roman democracy. Therefore, while his reign was a period of great benefit and stability for the empire, the methods he used to achieve it were those of an autocrat.
9. What were the key features of the Augustan social reforms?
Augustus promoted a conservative social agenda aimed at restoring what he saw as traditional Roman values. His reforms included:
Laws on Marriage: He passed laws encouraging marriage and childbirth, particularly among the elite, to grow the Roman population and stabilise family structures.
Adultery Laws: Adultery was made a public crime, famously leading to the exile of his own daughter, Julia.
Limiting Extravagance: He introduced measures to curb excessive luxury and public displays of wealth among the upper classes.
10. How did Augustus die and who succeeded him?
Augustus died of natural causes on August 19, 14 CE, at the age of 75, after a long illness. His death marked the first-ever succession of a Roman emperor. He was succeeded by his adopted son, Tiberius. The peaceful transfer of power to Tiberius was a testament to the stability of the political system (the Principate) that Augustus had created, ensuring that his death did not plunge Rome back into civil war.
