Industrialization
Industrialisation is the process of automation of various processes in manufacturing and thus by extension to different areas of economic spheres. In simple terms, industrialisation can be said as the setting up of factories or industries that result in mass production of consumables by utilising machines that automate entire production processes. So, plainly speaking if there is anything that can be said about the age of industrialization, then it is that the age of industrialization is characterized by the setting up of factories fueled by the active use of machinery and its impact on different economic spheres and networks.
Before Industrialization
People generally believe about the age of industrialization that it was the first time that there were mass production and intense structural organisation in economic activities. But this is not true. Historians now call the phase of industrialization before the beginning of factories as the period of proto-industrialization. This is the period when there existed organised markets and economic networks of merchants, artisans and peasants with a wide scale of production. But this period lacked the active use of machinery and scientific advancements in technology and production. Business in this period or manufacturing of products in this period was largely dependent on human resources available.
The proto-industrialization period can be accounted for the period of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. During this period, there were vast movements of exploration and colonial expansion by economic powers in Europe of the global world opening up a vast scope of international trade and markets. This led to an increase in the demand for products which the European merchants deemed as a developing opportunity. But to increase the production the merchants could not depend on the towns because of the powerful associations of crafts and trade guilds which maintain a monopoly on the production, quality and quantity of production and regulation of competition and prices. Hence, the merchants turned to the countryside persuading peasants and artisans to produce for the international markets.
Age of Industrialization
The age of industrialization is said to have begun around 1760 i.e. in the middle of the eighteenth century. It began in Britain and then subsequently spread to the rest of the European continent and North America and their colonies.
One thing that has to be known about the age of industrialization is that there a number of factors that were responsible for the start of the setting up of factories and automation. These factors were largely about the land i.e. the natural resources, capital and labour. Britain had all these factors readily available not only for production but also for the markets which facilitated the beginning of industrialization. It also had plenty of ports providing access to trade routes and foreign markets, access to capital such as goods and money and an abundance of labour. The British colonies provided a huge market for the goods produced in England thus maintaining a steady and increased flow of supply and demand.
Inventions, Factories and Human Labour
An important fact about the age of industrialization is that various small and large inventions were its driving force. Cotton was the first product that saw the rise and marked the beginning of industrialization. There was an increase in the efficiency of each step of production such as carding, twisting and spinning, and rolling. The spinning jenny was one of the inventions that increased the production of thread by eight times as much thread as the single spinning wheel.
Apart from these mechanistic inventions, the establishment of factories played a huge role in mass production. Richard Arkwright established the first mill in England. These mills led to the organisation of all the production processes under one roof. Because of this, there was an increased demand for mill workers and machine operators. Over the end of the eighteenth century, this demand although increased was short of the huge human labour that was available. When it manifested in other sectors of the economy production and manufacturing, this also led to an increase in employment opportunities.
One of the other important inventions that revolutionized the process of automation and the use of machines was the invention of the steam engine by Thomas Newcomen. James Watt later created another modern version of the steam engine and patented it. This steam engine was widely exploited in the production and development of railways, naval ships, etc.
Industrialization in Colonies - India
The availability of a potential colonial market was one of the biggest influencers in the story about the age of industrialization. The industrial revolution impacted greatly the local and indigenous market and economic systems in place in colonies such as India. Before India became a part of the tale about the age of industrialization, there was an efficient system of merchants, bankers and other economic players in place. Ports of Surat and Hooghly provided the trade opportunities of merchants residing in and around these places in international markets with their connections to Continental African and Southeastern nations. The products available at the ports were made available by inland merchants that brought the produce from the inland to these places. The weavers and artisans in India produced huge handcrafted products that were highly valued in markets such as European markets.
But with increased control over trade policies and practices, the East India Company and later the British administration established a monopoly of British markets in India. For example, with the increased mass production of cotton and its products the British banned sale of Indian products even though they were of high quality. Alongside the banning of products, the products from Britain were available in large quantities compared to the quantities in India and this led to them being available at cheaper prices. This led to a decrease in the market in India for indigenous goods and also the export of finished goods abroad decreased. Even though the raw material such as cotton was exported to Britain and other countries that too decreased over time in the nineteenth century. This essentially led to the hampering of local economic activities and economic markets.
Owing to the above-mentioned reasons the business and trade activities at the ports of Surat and Hooghly declined. Their place was taken up by the development of ports and cities such as Bombay and Calcutta, because of the goods and material available at these ports from the imports. Also, the establishment of factories in these areas led the weavers and artisans from the neighbouring areas and provinces to come and work as labourers as the inland economic system and network declined.
However, there were some notable pioneering Indian industrialists as well like Dwarkanath Tagore, Jamsetji Nusserwanji Tata who established their own cotton mills and the first-ever iron and steel industry in India. Their contributions to the development of Indian economies in the pre and post independence period has been instrumental.
Conclusion
The story about the age of Industrialization is an interesting one as even though it comes at the cost of replacing many ‘traditional’ processes of manufacturing and production by weavers and artisans, it is the story of very rapid progress and development of science and technological prowess. This has led to major economic changes in the world and changes in the economic picture. Even then small-scale industries and handcrafted products are still a significant part of the industrial landscape and provide a significant contribution to the economy.
FAQs on About the Age of Industrialization
1. What is meant by the Age of Industrialisation?
The Age of Industrialisation refers to the historical period, primarily from the late 18th to the 19th century, marked by a fundamental shift from agrarian and handicraft-based economies to economies dominated by machine-based manufacturing and the factory system. This era was characterised by major technological innovations, such as the steam engine, which revolutionised production, transport, and society as a whole.
2. What was proto-industrialisation and how did it function?
Proto-industrialisation was the early phase of large-scale industrial production for an international market that existed before the establishment of modern factories. It functioned through a network controlled by merchants who would provide raw materials and advances to peasants and artisans in the countryside. These rural workers would then produce goods, like textiles, from their homes, which the merchants would collect and sell in urban centres and abroad. This system allowed merchants to bypass powerful urban craft guilds.
3. Why did some 19th-century industrialists prefer hand labour over machines?
Many industrialists preferred hand labour over machines for several practical reasons. Firstly, machines were often expensive, difficult to install, and costly to repair. Secondly, human labour was cheap and available in large quantities, especially during certain seasons. Lastly, many products with intricate or varied designs required the skill and finesse of human hands, which machines of that era could not replicate. In industries with seasonal demand, it was more economical to hire more workers for the peak season than to invest in machinery that would lie idle for the rest of the year.
4. How did the introduction of the cotton mill change the production process?
The introduction of the cotton mill, pioneered by figures like Richard Arkwright, dramatically changed the production process by bringing everything under one roof. Key changes included:
- Centralisation: All stages of production, from carding and twisting to spinning and rolling, were managed in a single factory.
- Increased Supervision: It allowed for careful supervision over the workforce, ensuring quality control and regulation of labour.
- Efficiency and Scale: The use of new, expensive machines in a centralised location made mass production more efficient and organised than the decentralised proto-industrial system.
5. How did the experience of industrialisation in colonial India differ from that in Britain?
The industrialisation experience in India was fundamentally different from Britain's because it was shaped by colonial policies. In Britain, it was an organic process that led to economic dominance. In India, the age of machines led to the decline of traditional industries, as cheap, machine-made goods from Manchester flooded the market. While new factories did emerge in India, they faced stiff competition and discriminatory trade policies. The pattern of industrialisation was thus not a sign of progress but was intertwined with the economic subjugation of the colony.
6. What was the role of a 'jobber' in Indian industries?
In early Indian industries, a jobber was an old and trusted worker employed by industrialists to recruit new workers. They held significant power and influence. Their primary role was to bring recruits from their villages, help them settle in the city, and provide them with money during times of crisis. In return for these favours, they often demanded money and gifts, controlling the lives of the workers they brought in.
7. Why did workers, especially women, protest against the introduction of the Spinning Jenny?
Workers protested against the Spinning Jenny because it directly threatened their livelihoods. This machine could spin multiple threads at once, significantly speeding up production. For women in the woollen industry who traditionally earned their living from hand-spinning, the machine symbolised mass unemployment. A single machine could do the work of many, making their skills redundant and leading to widespread fear of job loss, which sparked aggressive opposition.
8. What were the main features of industrialisation in the nineteenth century?
The main features of nineteenth-century industrialisation, as outlined in the CBSE syllabus for the academic year 2025-26, include:
- Pace of Change: Industrial change was gradual; traditional industries like food processing and pottery remained important and coexisted with modern factories.
- Dominance of Key Industries: Cotton and iron and steel were the most dynamic and visible industries.
- Preference for Hand Labour: Initially, many industrialists were hesitant to adopt machines due to high costs and the availability of cheap labour.
- Life of the Workers: Workers faced challenges like low wages, long working hours, and seasonal unemployment.
- Colonial Industrialisation: The process in colonies like India was distinct, often leading to the decline of local industries.
9. Why is it inaccurate to say that the factory system immediately replaced traditional industries?
It is inaccurate because the pace of industrial change was slow and not as revolutionary as often portrayed. Firstly, a large portion of the industrial output, even in the late nineteenth century, was produced outside factories in domestic units. Secondly, technological changes were not rapid across all sectors; many small innovations improved traditional methods rather than replacing them entirely. Traditional industries continued to thrive and adapt, proving that the modern factory and the old system coexisted for a long period.
