Biotechnology is the field of biology that makes use of technology as well as application to living beings. Biotechnology is related to developing, modifying, and producing beneficial products for human welfare. It is one of the oldest industrial technologies that have ever been recorded. For example, the application of fermentation in alcohol production is a biological technique that has grown and expanded into genomics, recombinant gene methodologies, applied immunology, pharmaceuticals, and its applications that have extended across many fields like genetic engineering, agriculture, medicine, etc.

Biotechnology is also used in the form of bioinformatics to empower the field of research and development. This research is then used for the extraction and production of living entities through biochemical engineering.

The word biotechnology was used first in 1919 by Karl Ereky. It means products are produced from raw materials with the support of living organisms.

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Importance of Biotechnology

Biotechnology had advanced to various procedures over time like:

DNA Manipulation
Tissue Culture
Protoplast fusion
Protein Engineering
Call Catalysis
Immobilized enzymes

Biotechnology has led to the synthesis of several products and services for the welfare of mankind like:

Immunology
Biochemistry
Genetic engineering
Cell biology
Chemical engineering
Molecular biology

A few of the important and path-breaking contributions of biotechnology are given below:

DNA Vaccines
Plant tissue culture
Recombinant DNA technique
Production of Humulin
Invitro fertilization or test-tube baby

Principles of Biotechnology

The basic principles of biotechnology that initiated the inception of biotechnology are:

Genetic Engineering: The underlying principle used in this process is to alter the existing organisms by modifying the genetic makeup of the organism, which involves recombinant DNA technology. The biotech process involved in genetic engineering is given below:

Isolation of the DNA from the donor organism
DNA fragmentation using the restriction endonucleases
Ligation of the desired DNA fragment into the vector
Recombinant DNA is then transferred to the host
Culture of transformed cells in a nutrient medium
Extraction of the desired product

Chemical Engineering: The main point of distinction between biotechnology and chemical engineering is the scale of operation as mostly the products from biotechnology are low on the volume of biochemicals and high on value. Biotechnology increased the scope of pharmaceuticals, and its application has given excellent products in terms of quality as well as quantity. Examples include vaccines, enzymes, antibiotics, etc.

Biotechnology Process and Applications

Biotechnology has been used in different fields to modify and produce products for human welfare. The applications of biotechnology include:

Agriculture: The application of biotechnology in the field of agriculture gave way to the Green Revolution. The contribution of biotechnology in the field of agriculture includes organic agriculture, agrochemical-based agriculture, genetically engineered crop-based agriculture. Biotechnology has helped with tripling food production. It has also proved to be beneficial for the introduction of pest-resistant plants and genetically modified crops that increase food production and help to meet the needs of the growing human population.
Medicine: The involvement of recombinant DNA technology has permitted the mass production of safe and more effective therapeutic drugs. These drugs are produced as a result of genetic engineering. For example, Humulin, which is genetically modified insulin, is used to treat diabetes. Biotechnology has also developed a gene therapy that helps in the removal of genetic disorders in the embryo. Some other applications of biotechnology in medicine include PCR and ELISA.
Transgenic Animals: Transgenic animals are the ones in whom a new and altered gene has been inserted experimentally into the genome by the process of genetic engineering. A few examples of transgenic animals include pigs, sheep, cows, rats, rabbits, fish, etc. The aim that led to the creation of transgenic animals include:
To study the different types of diseases
For testing the safety of vaccines and toxicity of the drugs before they are used on the animals
For the production of biological products
To study the regulation of the genes and how they affect the normal functioning of the body and its development.
To study the contribution of the genes in the development of the genes
Aquaculture: Biotechnology helps in the improvement of life and the quantity of fish. The gonadotropin-releasing hormone is introduced in the fish to enhance the breeding, which helps in enhancing the growth and genetic characteristics. It also assists in preventing a number of diseases.
Antibiotics: Biotechnology helps in the production of antibiotics, vaccines, artificial hormones with the use of plants. The Genes with the desired characteristics are induced into the plants to manufacture the encoded proteins. The edible vaccines are cost-effective, can be easily stored, and are administered in the body. They are used in the treatment of diseases like hepatitis, cholera, measles, etc.

History of Biotechnology

Agriculture in theory has been told as a primary way of producing food from the time of the Neolithic age. In the early days of biotechnology, the first-come farmers were selected to grow the best-suited crops that had the highest yields in order to grow enough food to feed the whole population. When the fields and the crops on it grew larger, it became very hard to maintain them. Because of it, a discovery had been made, that certain organisms along with their by-products can fertilize effectively, control pests, and restore nitrogen.

Farmers in all the history of agriculture tailored the genetics of their produce by putting them in new environments and breeding them with other plants. This is one of the early forms of biotechnology. These methods were also added in the early fermentation of beer. In India, China, Italy, and early Mesopotamia, these methods were introduced and they are still valid. The grains which are malted and contain enzymes convert starch from the grains into sugar and then add certain Yeasts to make beer. In this method, carbohydrates present in the grains break down into alcohol, for example, ethanol.

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FAQs on Biotechnology Process Explained: Steps, Principles, and Applications

1. What are the core steps in the biotechnology process for creating a recombinant organism?

The biotechnology process, specifically for creating recombinant DNA (rDNA), involves a series of sequential steps as per the Class 12 syllabus. The main stages are:

Isolation of Genetic Material: The first step is to isolate the desired DNA in its pure form, free from other macromolecules.
Cutting of DNA: Restriction enzymes are used to cut the DNA at specific locations to isolate the gene of interest and to cut the vector DNA.
Ligation of DNA Fragment: The desired gene is joined with the vector DNA (like a plasmid) using the enzyme DNA ligase. This creates the recombinant DNA or rDNA.
Transformation: The rDNA is introduced into a suitable host organism, such as E. coli bacteria. This process is called transformation.
Culturing the Host Cells: The transformed host cells are grown in a culture medium on a large scale in a bioreactor.
Downstream Processing: This is the final stage, involving the extraction, purification, and preservation of the desired product (e.g., a protein or enzyme) manufactured by the host cells.

2. Why are restriction enzymes and DNA ligase considered fundamental tools in recombinant DNA technology?

Restriction enzymes and DNA ligase are fundamental because they perform the critical 'cutting' and 'pasting' operations on DNA. Restriction enzymes, often called 'molecular scissors', recognise and cut DNA at very specific nucleotide sequences. This precision allows scientists to isolate a specific gene of interest from a larger DNA molecule and to open up a cloning vector (like a plasmid) at a corresponding site. DNA ligase then acts as a 'molecular glue' to permanently join the isolated gene with the vector DNA by forming phosphodiester bonds. Without these two enzymes, it would be impossible to precisely create a functional recombinant DNA molecule.

3. What is the importance of a 'selectable marker' in the biotechnology process?

A selectable marker is crucial for identifying and eliminating non-transformants while permitting the growth of transformants. During transformation, not all host cells successfully take up the recombinant DNA. A selectable marker is a gene, often for antibiotic resistance (e.g., ampicillin resistance), present in the cloning vector. After the transformation attempt, the host cells are grown on a medium containing that specific antibiotic. Only the cells that have successfully incorporated the vector (transformants) will survive and grow, while the others (non-transformants) will be eliminated. This makes the screening process efficient and essential for isolating the desired recombinant cells.

4. What is the difference between a plasmid and a bacteriophage when used as a cloning vector?

Both plasmids and bacteriophages are used as cloning vectors to carry foreign DNA into host cells, but they differ in key aspects:

Nature: A plasmid is an extrachromosomal, circular DNA molecule naturally found in bacteria. A bacteriophage is a virus that infects bacteria.
Size of Insert: Plasmids are generally suitable for cloning smaller DNA fragments (typically up to 15 kb). Bacteriophages, such as the lambda phage, can carry significantly larger DNA inserts (up to 25 kb).
Mechanism of DNA transfer: With plasmids, the transfer of rDNA into the host cell occurs through a process called transformation. With bacteriophages, the transfer happens through transduction, where the virus naturally injects its genetic material into the host bacterium.

The choice between them often depends on the size of the gene to be cloned.

5. What are the main 'colors' used to classify different fields of biotechnology?

Biotechnology is often categorised by color to denote its primary area of application. The main types include:

Red Biotechnology: Pertains to medical and pharmaceutical applications, such as the production of antibiotics, vaccines, insulin, and gene therapy.
Green Biotechnology: Focuses on agricultural processes. This includes developing genetically modified plants (transgenic crops) to be pest-resistant, nutrient-rich, or able to withstand harsh environmental conditions.
White Biotechnology: Also known as industrial biotechnology, this involves using microorganisms and enzymes to produce chemicals, detergents, biofuels, and other industrial goods in an environmentally friendly way.
Blue Biotechnology: Concerns the application of biotechnology to marine and aquatic organisms and processes, for example, developing new drugs from marine organisms or improving aquaculture practices.

6. What is Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and what is its role in the biotechnology process?

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a technique used to amplify a specific segment of DNA, creating billions of copies from a very small initial sample. Its role in the biotechnology process is to generate a sufficient quantity of the gene of interest for subsequent steps like ligation and cloning. It is especially important when the starting amount of DNA is scarce. The process involves cycles of heating and cooling (denaturation, annealing, and extension) using a heat-stable Taq polymerase enzyme, primers, and nucleotides to achieve exponential amplification of the target DNA sequence.

7. What happens during the 'downstream processing' stage of the biotechnology process?

Downstream processing refers to the final and critical stage after the biosynthesis or fermentation phase is complete. It involves the recovery and purification of the biotechnological product from the large-scale culture. This stage includes a series of steps:

Separation: The product is separated from the host cells, cell debris, and the culture medium.
Purification: The isolated product is purified to remove impurities and achieve the desired concentration. Techniques like chromatography are commonly used here.
Formulation: The purified product is mixed with suitable preservatives and stabilisers to prepare it for its final use, such as a drug or enzyme.
Quality Control: The final product undergoes strict quality control checks before being marketed.

This stage is essential to ensure the product is safe, effective, and stable.